Overview
Ecology is the study of organisms within their ecosystems. More specifically, ecology examines each organism's relationships with other organisms and the abiotic features of its environment. In order to study ecology, scientists use a variety of tests in both field and lab settings. Likewise, they measure and study ecology on various “levels”, such as either measuring the energy flow through a population in comparison to measuring the energy flow through a biome [1].
The study of ecology is often considered to be divided into three fields: population ecology, community ecology, and ecosystem ecology. Population ecology consists of the dynamics and interactions occurring within a population. It measures the factors which affect a population and the relations of populations with their environment. Ecologists often gauge population ecology by measuring “population size, population density, patterns of dispersion, demographics, dynamics and population growth” [2]. On the other hand, community ecologists analyze the various factors which may affect “community structure, biodiversity, and the distribution and abundance of species" [3]. Community ecologists study the variety of interactions which occur between organisms, such as their feeding relations, ‘aiding’ relationships, and competitive relationships. Typically, these relationships are herbivory, predation, symbiosis and competition. The last science of ecology is ecosystem ecology. Scientists studying ecosystem ecology examine the interrelations of organisms with the abiotic factors of an ecosystem [4]. Many of the studies of ecosystem ecologists revolve around energy flows and nutrient sequences.
It is crucial to study ecology for a variety of reasons. Not only is it critical to comprehend the interrelations of an organisms within their environments, but in understanding this, humans can further apprehend the consequences of our own constant population growth as the number of available resources rapidly declines.
The study of ecology is often considered to be divided into three fields: population ecology, community ecology, and ecosystem ecology. Population ecology consists of the dynamics and interactions occurring within a population. It measures the factors which affect a population and the relations of populations with their environment. Ecologists often gauge population ecology by measuring “population size, population density, patterns of dispersion, demographics, dynamics and population growth” [2]. On the other hand, community ecologists analyze the various factors which may affect “community structure, biodiversity, and the distribution and abundance of species" [3]. Community ecologists study the variety of interactions which occur between organisms, such as their feeding relations, ‘aiding’ relationships, and competitive relationships. Typically, these relationships are herbivory, predation, symbiosis and competition. The last science of ecology is ecosystem ecology. Scientists studying ecosystem ecology examine the interrelations of organisms with the abiotic factors of an ecosystem [4]. Many of the studies of ecosystem ecologists revolve around energy flows and nutrient sequences.
It is crucial to study ecology for a variety of reasons. Not only is it critical to comprehend the interrelations of an organisms within their environments, but in understanding this, humans can further apprehend the consequences of our own constant population growth as the number of available resources rapidly declines.
Ecosystems
An ecosystem is a collective of biotic and abiotic factors which are interdependent on each other. Ecosystems consist of various niches and interactions both within communities and populations. Ecosystems may vary tremendously in size and can moreover be located throughout the world. Likewise, there are a variety of different ecosystems. The major ecosystems are called biomes. The chief terrestrial biomes are the tropical rainforest, desert, taiga, tundra, temperate forest and savanna. Each of these biomes has a different climate, flora and fauna. The factor that determines the biome of an area is climate, which consists of both temperature and rainfall.
The temperature of an area is determined by its relative location to the equator. Even though all areas of the earth receive an equal amount of sunlight, those closest to the equator are hotter. This is because the suns rays are more direct at the equator whilst more angled at higher latitudes. Not only do sun rays affect temperature though, they likewise affect the wind, ocean currents, and precipitation. Scientists often use convection cells to describe the ways in which heat may affect precipitation. Along the earths surface there are approximately six major convection cells. At 0 degrees, the equator, are two ascending convection cells. These transfer warm, moist air, upward from the hot equator as evaporation, because of the high temperature, is constantly occurring. Once the moist air reaches a certain elevation above the equator, it rains. This same air, presently hot and dry, descends over an area approximately 30 degrees away from the equator. This cycle is repeated throughout the earths surface. At the latitudes 0 and 60, warm moist air ascends while at the latitudes of 30 and 90, hot and dry air descends. Thus, convection cells stipulate where rainfall occurs.
[This section was written based only on class notes.]
The temperature of an area is determined by its relative location to the equator. Even though all areas of the earth receive an equal amount of sunlight, those closest to the equator are hotter. This is because the suns rays are more direct at the equator whilst more angled at higher latitudes. Not only do sun rays affect temperature though, they likewise affect the wind, ocean currents, and precipitation. Scientists often use convection cells to describe the ways in which heat may affect precipitation. Along the earths surface there are approximately six major convection cells. At 0 degrees, the equator, are two ascending convection cells. These transfer warm, moist air, upward from the hot equator as evaporation, because of the high temperature, is constantly occurring. Once the moist air reaches a certain elevation above the equator, it rains. This same air, presently hot and dry, descends over an area approximately 30 degrees away from the equator. This cycle is repeated throughout the earths surface. At the latitudes 0 and 60, warm moist air ascends while at the latitudes of 30 and 90, hot and dry air descends. Thus, convection cells stipulate where rainfall occurs.
[This section was written based only on class notes.]
Community Interactions
Predation
The first class of community interactions is predation, also known as predator and prey. Within a predator and prey relationship, the predator hunts organisms while the prey is the organism hunted. Thus, one organism is feeding off of an other organism and benefitting form the nutrients it receives while the organism, the prey, is not advantaged and instead often dies. In order to avoid being captured and eaten, prey will often develop different adaptations such as the ability to run faster, camouflage and a developed sense of smell and hearing [5]. Likewise, the predator, which relies on the nutrients which prey provide, must adapt in order to capture a greater number of prey. Similarly to its prey, predators develop adaptations such as speed, stealth, camouflage, poison and a developed sense of smell and hearing [6].
The survival of predator and prey are interdependent on one another. As the number of prey decreases, the number of predators will decrease. Likewise, as the number of predators decreases, the number of prey will first increase then decrease due to carrying capacity and limited resources. Furthermore, without prey, a predator is unable to receive nutrients, while without a predator, prey, as stated above, would be forced to vie for natural resources among themselves. An example of a predator prey relationship is that of lions and zebras. The lion, the predator, hunts zebras as its main source of food whilst the zebra remains the prey of this relationship. |
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Symbiosis
Symbiosis is the interaction of two species in which one is leastwise dependent on and benefits from the other. There are three existing types of symbiosis: mutualism, commensalism and parasitism. Mutualism occurs when both organisms benefit from their relationship. Scientists often categorize mutualism into two types, obligate mutualism and facultative mutualism. In an obligate mutualism relationship, the species involved are unable to survive without each other [7]. On the other hand, in a facultative relationship, the species involved may still survive even when lacking the relationship, though they are often unable thrive [8]. An example of an obligate relationship is that of leaf cutter ants and certain species of fungi. Even though the ant larvae feed on the fungi, the fungi are unable to survive without the ants as they provide the fungi with leaf material and protection from a variety of harmful pests. Thus, without each other, the leaf cutter ants and fungi are unable to survive. An example of a facultative relationship is that of clownfish and sea anemone. In this relationship, the sea anemone provides a protective ‘home’ for the clownfish whilst the clownfish defend the sea anemone from predators and parasites.
Commensalism is another form of symbiosis. In commensalism, one organism is benefitted whilst the other organism remains unaffected by the relationship. An example of commensalism are the orchids located in tropical rain forests. These orchids will often grow on the upper branches of trees, as this allows them to obtain an increased amount of light. However, the tree itself is not hurt nor helped by the orchids. Parasitism is the third and final type of symbiosis. In a parasitism relationship, one organism, the parasite, benefits from the relationship while the other organism, the host, is instead harmed by the relationship. Parasites in a parasitism relationship feed off of the nutrients of their host, obtaining these nutrients from the host’s tissues and fluids [9]. Parasites may either exist on the outside or inside of a host [10]. Unlike in a predator prey relationship, the host however is often not killed by the relationship, though it may concomitantly die from illness or poor health [11]. An example of parasitism is the relationship of leeches and humans. In this relationship the leech, the parasite, attaches itself to and siphons blood from the host, a human. |
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Competition
Competition is a relationship in which two organisms brawl in order to obtain limited resources. It occurs most when a population has a high density [12]. However, competition is decreased due to niches, as by having a variety of niches, organisms may avoid contact and may likewise sustain different resource needs.
There are two differing types of competition: intraspecific competition and interspecific competition. Intraspecific competition occurs between two or more organisms of the same species [13]. In intraspecific competition, organisms may not only fight for resources but also for dominance, mates and breeding grounds [14]. On the other hand, interspecific competition occurs between organisms of different species [15]. Likewise, interspecific competition may not only result over resources and food but also over territory. One of the most important principles of ecology is competitive exclusion. Competitive exclusion is the idea that within an environment, two species contending for identical resources can not coexist [16]. This forces one of the organisms, the weaker one, to adapt or perish. Therefore, competition plays a principle roll in natural selection, as it often forces organisms to adjust to their environments in order to survive. |
Tree Pangolin Ecology
The tree pangolin inhabits Central Africa, which posses terrestrial ecosystems such as the deciduous forest, rain forest, savanna and steppe and biomes such as the savanna, montanne and tropical rainforest [17]. Being mammals and relatively undemanding organisms, tree pangolins can occupy and adapt to a variety of habitats such as moist forests, temperate forests, brush, cleared areas, wetlands, scrublands and grasslands. However, tree pangolins will often populate areas with large amounts of ant and termite colonies [18]. Likewise, tree pangolins frequently evade areas with large quantities of humans as they are wary of being caught and will often attempt to avoid captivation [19].
As a majority of tree pangolins inhabit the savanna, it can be assumed the tree pangolins enjoy the conditions provided by a savanna. Consequently, tree pangolins enjoy conditions in which trees exist (as they are semi-arboreal), there are annual amounts of rain (anywhere from thirty to fifty inches) and, even though tree pangolins are warm blooded mammals and thus control their own body temperature, they benefit from temperatures close to 64 degrees Fahrenheit [20].
As a majority of tree pangolins inhabit the savanna, it can be assumed the tree pangolins enjoy the conditions provided by a savanna. Consequently, tree pangolins enjoy conditions in which trees exist (as they are semi-arboreal), there are annual amounts of rain (anywhere from thirty to fifty inches) and, even though tree pangolins are warm blooded mammals and thus control their own body temperature, they benefit from temperatures close to 64 degrees Fahrenheit [20].
Tree Pangolin Trophic Level
The trophic level of an organism is its feeding position along a food chain. A food chain begins with the primary producers, which receive energy from the sun captured during photosynthesis. This energy then flows to each trophic level via a food chain. The trophic levels consist of the producer, as mentioned before, the primary consumer (herbivores and omnivores), the secondary consumer (carnivores) and the tertiary consumer (carnivores). Scavengers, detritivores, and decomposers, which do not form any trophic level, instead eat the waste products of the food chain. The energy flow though the food chain is “inefficient”, as while energy moves to the next trophic level, it decreases, the reason that organisms at top trophic levels must eat numerous other organisms in order to sustain themselves [21].
The tree pangolin is an insectivore (a carnivore) and thus falls into mainly the secondary consumer and occasionally the tertiary consumer trophic levels. This means that the tree pangolin feeds on primary consumers (animals that are herbivores and therefore eat producers, plants) and secondary consumers (animals that are carnivores and therefore eat herbivores).
The tree pangolin is an insectivore (a carnivore) and thus falls into mainly the secondary consumer and occasionally the tertiary consumer trophic levels. This means that the tree pangolin feeds on primary consumers (animals that are herbivores and therefore eat producers, plants) and secondary consumers (animals that are carnivores and therefore eat herbivores).
Tree Pangolin Niche
A niche is the multidimensional relationship of an organism with its environment. It includes the habitat of an organism as well as the organisms roll in an ecosystem. An organism’s niche is defined by a variety of factors. The physical factors which define a niche include temperature, pH, soil, sunlight and a number of other elements [22]. In a tree pangolin's niche, the average temperature is 64 degrees Fahrenheit whereas the other physical factors of a typical niche are not crucial to the survival and reproduction of the tree pangolin.
Biological factors such as predators, prey, parasites and competitors likewise form the niche of an organism [23]. The tree pangolins niche consists of a variety of biological factors and interactions. The tree pangolins predators consist mainly of large cat species such as lions, tigers leopards and hyenas [24]. Likewise, human beings could be considered as a predator to the tree pangolin as pangolins are constantly being captured by poachers [25]. On the other hand, the tree pangolin prey on insects such as ants, ground termites and tree termites. The tree pangolin’s niche likewise consists of parasitism interactions. Parasitic tapeworms and nematodes are parasites to the tree pangolin and live within their gut and lymph systems [26]. Likewise, ticks, a parasite, live underneath the scales of tree pangolins [27]. However, the tree pangolin is additionally involved in mutualistic interactions, as bacteria within the tree pangolin’s gut aid in tree pangolin digestion [28]. Another biological factor which forms the tree pangolins niche is intraspecific competition, as tree pangolins have been known to fight with other tree pangolins over mates during the breeding season.
Finally, the behavior of an organism, such as its “seasonality, diurnal patterns, movement and social organization”, define its niche [27]. The tree pangolin's only seasonality consists of its breeding patterns, as breeding almost always occurs in the fall. Also, the tree pangolins diurnal pattern is nocturnal and the tree pangolin has no migration nor social organization as it is a solitary organism.
All of the factors mentioned above, both physiological, biological, and behavioral, along with the tree pangolins habitat, are what form the tree pangolin's niche.
Biological factors such as predators, prey, parasites and competitors likewise form the niche of an organism [23]. The tree pangolins niche consists of a variety of biological factors and interactions. The tree pangolins predators consist mainly of large cat species such as lions, tigers leopards and hyenas [24]. Likewise, human beings could be considered as a predator to the tree pangolin as pangolins are constantly being captured by poachers [25]. On the other hand, the tree pangolin prey on insects such as ants, ground termites and tree termites. The tree pangolin’s niche likewise consists of parasitism interactions. Parasitic tapeworms and nematodes are parasites to the tree pangolin and live within their gut and lymph systems [26]. Likewise, ticks, a parasite, live underneath the scales of tree pangolins [27]. However, the tree pangolin is additionally involved in mutualistic interactions, as bacteria within the tree pangolin’s gut aid in tree pangolin digestion [28]. Another biological factor which forms the tree pangolins niche is intraspecific competition, as tree pangolins have been known to fight with other tree pangolins over mates during the breeding season.
Finally, the behavior of an organism, such as its “seasonality, diurnal patterns, movement and social organization”, define its niche [27]. The tree pangolin's only seasonality consists of its breeding patterns, as breeding almost always occurs in the fall. Also, the tree pangolins diurnal pattern is nocturnal and the tree pangolin has no migration nor social organization as it is a solitary organism.
All of the factors mentioned above, both physiological, biological, and behavioral, along with the tree pangolins habitat, are what form the tree pangolin's niche.